Fallacy is an error in reasoning. It consists in
making arguments whose premise or premises do not really provide sufficient
grounds for the conclusion.
-
Fallacies can be formal or informal. When the
error in reasoning is due to the invalidity of the structure (form) of
argument, the fallacy is called formal.
If the error is on the content (not the structure) of the argument, the fallacy
is called informal.
-
There are four (4) general classifications of
informal fallacies.
A. Fallacies of Relevance
-
These are arguments whose premise is irrelevant
or “far” from the conclusion.
1.
Argumentum ad Populum
2.
Appeal to Emotion
3.
Argumentum ad Misericordiam
4.
Argumentum ad Baculum
5.
Argumentum ad Hominem
6.
Agumentum ad Crumenum
7.
Ignoratio Elenchi
8.
Two Wrongs Make a Right
9.
Scapegoating
10.
Rationalization
1.
Argumentum ad Populum or Appeal to People
It is when
you suggest that a claim is correct because it what everyone believes or
because it is part of a social tradition or culture.
Examples:
“Facebook must be the best Social Networking Site because almost all
people have facebook account.”
“There
is nothing wrong with Rido because it is part of our culture.”
2. Appeal to Emotion
When you make claims by arousing feelings
of anger, fear, grief, love, outrage, pity, pride, sexuality, sympathy, relief,
and so forth.
Examples:
“You would let me borrow money from your
again, right? Besides, what friends are for?”
“I really feel sorry for your lost. He is
a good friend of mine too…and if he were alive, he would really want you to buy
this product. So, just print your name here in the list and I’ll deliver the
product personally to you after his burial.”
3. Argumentum ad Misericordiam or Appeal to Pity
It is a type of appeal to
emotion wherein the arguer appeals to pity in order to advance a claim.
Examples:
“You cannot convict this man because he
is the only breadwinner in the family. If he’s gone, his family will die in
hunger.”
“Please pass me in this subject because
my father would kill me if he learned that I failed again.”
4. Argumentum ad Baculum or Appeal to Force
Also called as Scare Tactic, this type of
appeal to emotion consists in arguing that a claim must be accepted as true or
right; otherwise, something evil may be afflicted by the arguer.
Examples:
“Vote me.” (Speaking
while holding a gun)
“I am the best rider,
right? If you won’t agree I’ll kill you.”
5.
Argumentum ad Hominem or Attack
Against the Person
Your
reasoning contains this fallacy if you make an irrelevant attack on the arguer
and suggest that this attack undermines the argument itself.
Examples:
“His statements are lies. Don’t you see that this man is an ex-convict?”
If a drunkard tells you to stop drinking, do not believe him.
6. Argumentum ad Crumenum or Appeal to Money
This fallacy uses the error of supposing that, if something
costs a great deal of money, then it must be better, or supposing that if
someone has a great deal of money, then they’re a better person in some way unrelated
to having a great deal of money.
Examples:
“He
must be the president of our organization because he is rich.”
“That
restaurant serves delicious food because their food is very expensive.”
7.
Ignoratio Elenchi or Irrelevant Conclusion
This is an
error when one draws an irrelevant conclusion from supposed to be significant
premises.
Examples:
“Save water. Drink beer.”
“We want to eradicate poverty. Therefore, we must use contraceptives.”
8. Two Wrongs Make a Right
This fallacy consists in defending a wrong
action because someone previously has acted wrongly.
Examples:
“It is alright to steal her computer.
Besides, it was stolen by her father from someone else.”
“Kung buhay ang inutang, buhay rin ang
kabayaran.”
9. Scapegoating
This fallacy consists in blaming other people for a problem that they
know nothing about.
Examples:
“We lost the war against the Spartans
because of Socrates.” (Socrates was a philosopher not a soldier)
“Ever since you came into my life, I have
been so miserable.”
10.
Rationalization
We are rationalizing when we give someone a reason
to justify our action even though we know this reason is not really our own
reason for our action, usually because the offered reason will sound better to
the audience than our actual reason.
Examples:
“I bought the matzo bread from Kroger’s Supermarket
because it is the cheapest brand and I wanted to save money,” says Alex [who
knows he bought the bread from Kroger's Supermarket only because his girlfriend
works there].
“I wanted my father to buy me an Apple Computer because it is safer to
use and aside from that I could process files and documents fast and accurate.”
(The real reason is that she could have something to boast to her peers.)
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